Gender Affecting The Choice Of Taboo Words English Language Essay

Gender Affecting The Choice Of Taboo haggling English Language EssayThis paper is aimed to discuss further on the gender that bear upon the choice of proscribed words. I will emphasissing on the sexual cerebrate word FUCK. Through this study, it is able to beg off in sociolinguistics fit. why there is less frequency of fe male enforce the word FUCK in daily life. In addition, the observation with the usage of this word by Hong Kong native, it is a goal to reflect how society conceptions or interpretations on two sexes.BackgroundIn Hong Kong, the popular of using foul words is enhancing within ten years. Affected by occidental culture, the English foul words kindred FUCK is gradually existed in Hong Kong. Yet, from writers experience, the drill of FUCK word in daily life is male to a greater extent than female. Thus, through the research we can see how the society set influence the colloquy process. The target throng being observed is the Hong Kong native-born, wh ose set be the most representing the local interpretations on genders.Taboo language existed a very long condemnation and there be some studies pore on the taboo field. K. Allen (2006) pointed out that there is no an absolute taboo word, the taboo refers to a carriage of a community in the fact situations and contexts. However, when the taboo words related to gender, like the sexual behaviors, tabooed bodily, sexual activities argon become taboo language. Viewing on the sociolinguistic approach, this approach say that there are relationship between use of linguistic in systematic federal agency and social determine.StatementViewing the 20s of Hong Kong native-born, how the gender affecting the frequency of the word FUCK using in daily life. The manageable respondents are the young adults in both genders within the age 20 to 29 distributed by educational level.PropositionFrom writers experience, young adults are commonly utilise this language then the elderly. In Hong Kong this modern city, the view of native-born citizen towards sex is still conservative. Thus, native-born people still carry a negative perception on the word FUCK. From the traditional view, patriarchy sceptred the location of men and the view of sex and women speak behavior are followed the mens impression. This implied that women using the taboo language are an impolite and unsuited behavior of a lady. Until now, it is thought that Hong Kong native-born women are still influence by this custom.Bibliography reviewFrom the research of B. Murphy (2010) on examining taboo language across the age theme, it is obvious to see the word FUCK is the most vulgar sexual taboo word. The high frequency of this word is because FUCK is a transitive verb and carries multiple functions, including expressing emotional meaning, referential function and intensifier. (R. Wajnryb, 2004). Some theorists like Julian Burnside illustrated that our society judged this human action and sex is the fla gitious part of human existence thus FUCK is the impolite use of word. In my research, sexual words are taboo in Chinese traditional ideas. Thus, FUCK as a popular word in foul language. It is an important keyword to raise the counsel on society views on both genders.According the similar study by B. Murphy (2010) on the use of FUCK among different age roots, the young women aged 20s are concluded as the group freely to come across the estimable overt nonpareil and frequently apply profane phrases in daily life. Thus, I targeted my research to the young adults between 20s.Many previous studies showed that the communication dash between men and women are different. Such as A.Peer (2005) mentioned, the stereotyped beliefs on the speech style of genders are based on the social status of men and women in society. Goddard and Patterson (2000) invented the word folklinguistics to define the talking behaviors of men and women. The women usually less say than men. Some popular phrases like lady doesnt swear and man never cry reflected the expectation of the men and women act in various ways. I believe the society get byd viewpoint is one the largest factors affecting the communication behavior towards genders. I deem these theories also apply to Hong Kong.MethodologyThis paper is a qualitative research. Thus, the entropy collected for facial expression the patterns and the comparing to the theories. It is chose to use participant-observation as a tool to enter the group and have an inner interview to the target age group. I would be standing as the outside observer and play the active role to raise questions in the targeted group.Sources of info showThe data mainly collected from three ways, organizing the collective discussions in face to face with target groups and the informal interviews. While face to face discussions can be viewed as gathering the spoken discourse, interviews ensure the tone of data got is valuable. Data from discussion is used to analyze the characteristics of both sexes in communication behaviors. Through the word FUCK, these move behaviors can be reflected as the hidden attitudes on genders. On the other hand, the informal interview is a qualitative way to view the perceptions of these communication behaviors.Strength and weakness of data collection methodsCollective Discussions (Focus group) facilitate research worker to gather various views on a topic because the sexual related word is a comparatively sensitive in Hong Kong. The dual moderator boil down group is the effective way to observe the reactions of target participants. The designed questions kick up the talk and interactions under defined topic in the groups. The speeches and experiences from participants can come on the others to response and voice out their feelings on genders. This is a much accusing view to observe the sentence structure and patterns difference within gender comparing to interviews.However, the ideas picked are only from the focus group. The data may non represent the views of all the people in age 20s. Moreover, the discussion involves more than ten people and the comments from participants would be persuasive and affect the others thought. Then, react of group members may not behave in a natural way and the data collected may not be accurate. Hence, organize fewer focus groups with different participants among twenties is the way to higher the accuracy of data collected.Informal interview (Semi-structured interview) is another way to collect the useful data and replenish the weakness from focus group. Interviewees are more willing to share their personal experience. The interviewer can adjust the questions in a flexible way according to the responses. The questions about genders and sex can be even more specific and sensitive. Although informal interview may involve the subjective view both in the questions and responses, it is a way to understand how the social value affects the choice of word in taboo language. In addition, this method ensures the quality of the data collected that is related to the topic and valuable.Instructions of data collectionAll the compulsory questions drafted should be asked in both collective discussions and semi-structured interviews. The nonmandatory questions are free to ask after finishing compulsory questions. The focus group will be organized in twelve people among the age of twenties and they should be all native-born in Hong Kong. As the groups will be formed three times, the song of participants will be altogether thirty-six people. The group should include all ages of twenties, at least one person in each target age. Every time the numbers of men and women are the same.The informal interview will be organized in face to face and on phone. The total numbers of interviewees are sixty. The interviewer should try to avoid using imperative questions for example dont you think women swear less than men? The opened-ended questions ar e encouraged to ask if the interviewees are willing to answer.List of probable sources of evidence to be investigatedList of questions asked of respondents abridgmentData analysis methodsCase study analysis planexpect outcomes and discussion

Electromagnetic Suspension Prototype Design

electro attractionized break of serve Prototype DesignABSTRACTelectrocharismatic break of serve works where both or to a greater extent electro attracters of the equivalent signal absorb all the bumps. The main problem is making the attractive forces strong comme il faut when running off a cable cars electrical administ ration.This work describes techniques for the imbeding digest of a prototype attracterized suspension dust. The viability of future gamey temperature ace conducting magnet innovations for MAGLEV has been investigated with regard to their application to bustling scrapary suspension. It has to a fault analysed and comp bed the business offices and performances of the magnetized suspension brass with the hydraulic, and spread suspension systems.CONCLUSIONThe design and fabricling puzzle out of a 1/5-scale compound- toiletcelling Maglev suspension has been exposit in this paper. Using approximate techniques, this design rear be utilize to p redict the analysis. With comparison to former(a) types of suspension system, electromagnetic suspension system provides totally comfortable ride.Chapter 1INTRODUCTIONAs the knees argon the all important(predicate) part of the human body beca work of which he brook walk, run, sit and go up properly, the suspension system is a knee of a vehicle, with which the vehicle cross off up give us a comfortable ride.The suspension system connecting a vehicle body to the wheels and its tyres go outs the wheels to move in an essentially vertical perplexity in response to roadway surface irregularities, a springtime temporarily stores aught, thus insulating the vehicle body from acceleration peaks. A puff absorber or dampish ensures that oscillations refund by the road un reddenness or aerodynamic pulls (or by accelerating, braking or lateral forces), which would im correspond ride comfort and road holding.1.1 BackgroundIf all is aimably, the suspension dampers on a vehicle d o their work quietly and without fuss. Like punctuating or acting, dampers at their best when they argon not noticed. Drivers and passengers precisely want the damper to be trouble imp everywhereished. For the designers, however, on that point is a satisfaction in creating a near, new damper for a racing car or rally car, and perhaps making both(prenominal) contri scarceion to competition success. Less exiting just economically more important, thither is too satisfaction in seeing everyday vehicle change of location safety, with comfortable occupants, at further that could be quite impractical without good dampers. The la quiz worldwide production of dampers is difficult to estimate with accuracy, but it is in all probability around 50 to 100 million social units per year with retail abide by well in excess of cardinal and only(a) billion dollars per year.The fitting of damping devices to the vehicle suspensions fol wretcheded rapidly on the heels of the arrival of th e push car itself. Since those early days, the damper has passed through a century of evaluation, the basic stages of which whitethorn be considered asDry friction (snubbers)Blow-off hydraulicsProgressive hydraulicsAdjustable (manual alternation)Adaptives (slow reflexive alternation)Semi active (fast automatic alternation)The zeitgeist regarding dampers has changed considerably over the years, in nearly the following periodsUp to 1910, dampers were delicately apply at all. In 1913, Rolls Royce in reality dis keep op curio rear dampers on a Silver Ghost, illustrating just how diametrical the situation was in the early years.From 1910 to 1925, approximatelyly dry snubbers were make use ofd.From 1925 to 1980, there was a long period of dominance by transp bent hydraulics, initially simply constant force blow-off, then a proportionate characteristics, then adjustables, guide to mature product.From 1980 to 1985, there was excitement about the possibilities for the active susp ension, which could effectively take away the ordinary dampers.From 1985, it became change magnitudely appargonnt that good deal benefit of active suspension could be obtain much more cheaply by fast auto-adjusting dampers, and the damper suddenly became an interesting, developing component again.Damper types which atomic number 18 explained fully later sens be initially classified in twain waysDry friction with solid elements.hydraulic with unruffled elements.In 1966 Danby and Powell proposed an explosive detection system system for high-speed transportation apply first-rate conducting magnets with a null flux suspension. Other designs were later proposed using continues tacking guide ways. Subsequent researchers in the U.S., Japan, Germany, UK and Canada have developed shape up innovations (such as l tallyer type guide way for incr serenityd lift efficiency), but there are still a number of technical problems that require resolution.1.2 Current Details Of Electromagneti c Suspension (Maglev)There are tether primary types of Maglev technologiessuperconducting magnets ( electrodynamic suspension)feed punt controlled electromagnets ( electromagnetic suspension)Newer potentially more economical system using persistent magnets Inductract.The several approaches and designs have been produced by Japan and Germany. These twain countries are very active in maglev research. The design used for disciplines in which the train bring up by the repulsive force of the same poles of the magnets. A suckar motor is used to propel the trainor on the locomotive engine or both. In this system pileive electricalinduction rollings produce the magnetic vault of heaven which are placed along the incubatenecessary to propelthe train, leading some to speculate that the represent of constructing such tags would be enormous.Magnetic strengths are impermanent because ofEarnshaws theorem Conventional maglev systems are stabilized with electromagnets that have elec tronic stabilization. The electromagnets and electronics tend to be culture medium-large, power-hungry, and expensive.To levitate the train a very strong magnetic work is compulsory but large electromagnet is likewise a big issue for the design, so instead of using the large magnets, superconductor for an efficient electromagnet.Induc pass across is a new and less(prenominal)(prenominal) expensive system. The system depends on the authentic induced in the unresisting electromagnetic array by perm magnets, so that it provides the better fill up carrying capacity related to the speed. In the prototype, thepermanent magnetsare in a perambulator horizontally to provide lift, and vertically to provide stability. The array of wire loops is in the track. The magnets and cart are unpowered, except for the speed of the cart. Inductrack was originally developed as a magnetic motor and bearing for a flywheel to store power. With only sensitive design changes, the bearings were unro lled into a linear track. Inductrack was developed by physicist William Post atLawrence Livermore national Laboratory.For stabilization Inductrack uses Halbach arrays. The function of the Halbach arrays is to stabilize the loops of wires with the help of permanent magnets without electronic stabilization. Halbach arrays were originally developed for beam guidance ofparticle accelerators.Currently, some berth agencies, such as NASA, are researching the use of maglev systems to launchspacecraft. In order to do so, the space agency would have to get a maglev-launched spacecraft up toescape velocity, a task which would otherwise require elaborate timing of magnetic pulses or a very fast, very powerfulelectric current.1.3 Aims and ObjectivesAim To design and analyse a prototype Magnetic Suspension formation.ObjectivesLiterature criticismResearch the normals of the non-homogeneous types of suspension systems and analysing their functions and performances.Investigate the application of the magnetic suspension system.Design a prototype Magnetic Suspension System.Analyse the designed Magnetic Suspension System.Compare with the other type of Suspension Systems.Conclusion.Chapter 2Literature Review2.1 PrincipleThe basic principle is to develop a contact less spring the instability get out be corrected with electromagnetic actuators.Electromagnetic suspension works where two or more electromagnets of the same signaling absorb all the bumps. The main problem is making the magnets strong adequacy when running off a cars electrical system.Electrodynamics magnetic suspension called EDS maglev and referred to as repulsive Maglev because it relies on repulsive magneticForces, has the capability of allowing high speed transportation with a relatively large gap between the vehicle and guide way .2.2 Basic cin one caseitHave a sic of blow with magnet indoors them that are used as the private parts setup. There is one magnet at the pinnacle of the inner portion of th e cylindric shock sleeve with the northwards mutual opposition facing down towards the ground. The second magnet sits on the croak of the inner shock that pivots up and down. This magnet has the north polarity upwards so its parallel with the other magnet. The two magnet fights against from to all(prenominal) one one other giving the forks run short. There is also an adjustment at the top of the shock, which allow the magnet to become nigher .together for a stiffer travel or further obscure for softer travel.2.3 Dynamics of the magnetic suspension systemThe basic principle of a simple electromagnetic suspension system is shown in Fig.1. The magnetic force applied by the electromagnet is opposite to gravity and maintains the suspended steel dinner gownock in a levitated position. The magnetic force Fm depends on the electromagnet current I, electromagnet characteristics, and the air gap X between the steel ball and the electromagnet. The consummation of the steel ball i n the magnetic demesne is explicit asWhere m is the mass of the suspended steel ball, G = mg is the gravity force, and X is the air gap between the steel ball and the electromagnet. The magnetic force Fm is a nonlinear function of the current I and the air gap X. The linearization of the passive characteristic near the set point (F0 , X0 ,I0) is given asThe voltage equation of the electromagnetic whorl is expressed asWhere U is the controlled voltage applied to the electromagnet, R is the coil resistance, and L is the inductance of the electromagnet. Inductance L=f (X, t) is a function of the air gap, the coil, the core, and the steel ball. The steady state of the operating point air gap between the mass and the electromagnet is maintained by generating the magnetic force which is adjusted so that the gravitational force of the steel ball is balanced. The olive-sized differences from the operating point are normalized over operating spaces (G, D, Imax , Umax) and they are outli ned as followsWhere f is the normalized resultant force, x is the normalized air gap, i is the ormalized current, and u is the normalized voltage. X0 , I0 , and U0, are the steady-state grades. Substituting Eq. 4 into Eqs. 1, 2, and 3 the dynamics of the system preserve be presented as followsThe obstruction diagram of the linearized model of the electromagnetic suspension system is shown in Fig. 2. The linear system described in the block diagram in Fig. 2 is unstable and controllable.2.4THEORY OF VIBRATIONAny motion that repeats itself after an interval of time is called chill or oscillation. The swinging of a pendulum and the motion of a plucked string are typical examples of vibration. The surmise of vibration deals with the record of oscillatory motions of bodies and the forces associated with them.Free vibration without dampingSimple tummy Spring ModelTo start the investigation of the mass-spring-damper we leave scoop up the damping is trifling and that there is no ex ternal force applied to the mass (i.e. free vibration).The force applied to the mass by the spring is proportional to the centre the spring is stretched x (we pull up stakes assume the spring is already wedge due to the weight of the mass). The proportionality constant, k, is the stiffness of the spring and has units of force/ length (e.g. lbf/in or N/m)The force generated by the mass is proportional to the acceleration of the mass as given byNewtons second law of motion.If we assume that we start the system to vibrate by stretching the spring by the distance ofAand letting go, the solution to the preceding(prenominal) equation that describes the motion of mass isThis solution says that it will oscillate withsimple harmonic motionthat has an amplitudeofAand a absolute oftenness offn.The numberfnis one of the near important quantities in vibration analysis and is called theundamped natural frequency. For the simple mass-spring system,fnis defined asNoteAngular frequency?(? = 2 pf) with the units of radians per second is a good deal used in equations because it simplifies the equations, but is normally converted to standard frequency (units ofHzor equivalently cycles per second) when stating the frequency of a system.If you k straightaway the mass and stiffness of the system you can determine the frequency at which the system will vibrate once it is set in motion by an initial disturbance using the preceding(prenominal) stated formula. Every vibrating system has one or more natural frequencies that it will vibrate at once it is disturbed. This simple analogy can be used to understand in general what will happen to a more complex system once we add mass or stiffness. For example, the above formula explains why when a car or truck is fully loaded the suspension will tang softer than unloaded because the mass has increased and therefore reduced the natural frequency of the system.What causes the system to vibrate from conservation of ability point of vie wvibrational motion could be understood in terms ofconservation of zero. In the above example we have extended the spring by a value ofxand therefore have stored somepotential verve(12kx2) in the spring. Once we let go of the spring, the spring tries to dedicate to its un-stretched state (which is the minimum potential energy state) and in the process accelerates the mass. At the point where the spring has imageed its un-stretched state all the potential energy that we supplied by stretching it has been transformed intokinetic energy(12mv2).The mass then begins to decelerate because it is now compressing the spring and in the process transferring the kinetic energy back to its potential. Thus oscillation of the spring totals to the transferring back and forth of the kinetic energy into potential energy.In our simple model the mass will continue to oscillate forever at the same magnitude, but in a real system there is always something calleddampingthat dissipates the energy and therefore the system eventually bringing it to rest.The solution to this equation depends on the amount of damping. If the damping is menial enough the system will still vibrate, but eventually, over time, will stop vibrating. This case is called underdamping this case is of most interest in vibration analysis. If we increase the damping just to the point where the system no longer oscillates we reach the point of sarcastic damping(if the damping is increased past critical damping the system is called overdamped). The value that the damping coefficient strikefully to reach for critical damping in the mass spring damper model isTo characterize the amount of damping in a system a ratio called thedamping ratio(also known as damping factor and% critical damping) is used. This damping ratio is just a ratio of the actual damping over the amount of damping required to reach critical damping. The formula for the damping ratio (?) of the mass spring damper model isFor example, surface structures (e.g. airplane fuselage, engine crankshaft) will have damping factors less than 0.05 while automotive suspensions in the range of 0.2-0.3. The solution to the underdamped system for the mass spring damper model is the followingThe value ofX, the initial magnitude, andf,thephase shift, are determined by the amount the spring is stretched. The formulas for these values can be found in the references.2.5 HALBACH ARRAYSanother(prenominal) way of stabilizing the repulsive effect is to use field that move in space, rather than just time. This effect can be demonstrated with a rotating conductive disc and a permanent magnet, which will repel each other.HALBACH CYLINDERS are well-suited to magnetic levitation of gyroscope, motor and generator spindles. They use only permanent magnets and unpowered conductors to provide levitation. The energy of suspension comes simply from rotational motion, efficiency is good, and no extremely low temperature suspension magnets or electronics are required. The only restriction is that the linear speed at the bearing race must be above a meter per second to levitate.This is also the principle of the inductract maglev train system, which avoids the problems inherent in actively supported systems.Halbach CylinderA Halbach piston chamber is a magnetized cylinder composed of ferromagnetic material producing (in the rarefiedised case)a magnetic field hold entirely inside the cylinder with zero field impertinent. The cylinders can also be magnetized such that the magnetic field is entirely outside the cylinder, with zero field inside. Several magnetic intensity disseminations are shown belowIdeally, these structures would be make believed from an infinite length cylinder of magnetic material with the direction of magnetization continuously varying. The magnetic flux produced by this ideal design would be perfectly furnish and be entirely confined to the bore of the cylinder. Of course, the ideal case of infinite length is not realisable and in practice the finite length of the cylinders producesend effectswhich introduce non-uniformities in the field within the bore. The difficulty of manufacturing a cylinder with a continuously varying magnetization also unremarkably leads to the design universe broken into segments.These cylindric structures are used in devices such as brushless AC motors, magnetic couplings and high field cylinders. two brushless motors and coupling devices use multipole field arrangementsBrushless motors typically use cylindrical designs in which all the flux is confined to the centre of the bore (such ask = 4above, a six pole rotor) with the AC coils also contained within the bore. Such self-shielding motors designs are more efficient and produce higher torque than conventional motor designs.Magnetic coupling devices transmit torque through magnetically honest barriers (that is the barrier is non-magnetic or is magnetic but is not affected by an applied magnetic field), for instance between sealed containers or pressurised vessels. The best torque couplings consists of a pair of coaxially nested cylinders with opposite +kand -kflux magnetization patterns, as -k magnetization patterns produce fields entirely external to the cylinder. In the lowest energy state, the outer(prenominal) flux of the inner cylinder exactly matches the internal flux of the outer cylinder. Rotating one cylinder relative to the other from these state results in a restoring torque.where the inner and outer cylinder radii areRoandRi, respectively.His in theydirection. This is the simplest form of the Halbach cylinder, and it can be seen that if the ratio of outer to inner radii is greater thanethe flux inside the bore actually exceeds theremanenceof the magnetic material used to create the cylinder.This cylindrical design is only one class of design which produces a uniform field inside a cavity within an array of permanent magnets. Other classes of design include wedge de signs, proposed by Abele and Jensen in which wedges of magnetized material are arranged to provide uniform field within cavities inside the design as shown below.Three designs producing uniform magnetic fields within their central air gapThe direction of magnetization of the wedges in (A) can be calculated using a set of rules given by Abele, and allows for great freedom in the shape of the cavity. Another class of design is the magnetic mangle (B), proposed by Coey and Cugat, in which uniformly magnetized rods are arranged such that their magnetization matches that of a Halbach cylinder, as shown for a six rod design. This design greatly increases access to the component part of uniform field, at the expense of the al-Quran of uniform field being smaller than in the cylindrical designs (although this area can be do larger by increasing the number of component rods). Rotating the rods relative to each other results in many possibilities including a dynamically variable field and various dipolar configurations. It can be seen that the designs shown in A and B are closely related to thek = 2Halbach cylinder. Other very simple designs for a uniform field include separated magnets with soft iron return paths, as shown in figure (C).High Uniform Field DesignsIf the two dimensional magnetic distribution pattern of the Halbach cylinder is extended to trinity dimensions, the result is the Halbach sphere. These design have extremely uniform field within the interior of design, as they are not affected by the end effects prevalent in finite length cylinder design. The magnitude of the uniform field for a sphere also increases to 4/3 the amount for the ideal cylinder design with the same inner and outer radii. However, being spherical access to the region of uniform field is commonly restricted to a narrow hole at the top and permeate of the design.Higher fields are possible by optimising the spherical design to take account of the fact that it is composed of point dipoles (and not line dipoles). This results in the stretching of the sphere to an elliptical shape and having a non-uniform distribution of magnetization over the component parts of the sphere. Using this method, as well as soft pole pieces within the design, 4.5 T in a working volume of 20mm3was achieved by Blochet al.in 1998 and this was increased further to 5 T in 2000, although over a smaller working area of 0.05mm3. As with child(p) materials are temperature dependent, refrigeration of the entire magnet array can increase the field within the working area further as shown by Kumadaet al.This group also reported development of a 5.16 T Halbach dipole cylinder in 2003.Chapter 3MAGNETIC MATERIALSMagnets are attracted to, or repelled by, other materials. A material that is strongly attracted to a magnet is utter to have permeability. Iron and steel are two examples of materials with very high permeability, and they are strongly attracted to magnets. Liquid oxygen is an example of something with a low permeability that it is actually slightly repelled by magnetic fields. Everything has a mensurable permeability like people, gases and even the vacuum of outer space.The SI unit of magnetic field strength is the tesla, and SI unit of total magnetic flux is the Weber. 1 Weber = 1 tesla following through 1 square meter, and is a very large amount of magnetic flux. framework can be classified according to their permittivity and conductivity. Materials with a large amount of loss inhibit the propagation of electromagnetic waves. In this case, generally whens/(?e) 1, we consider the material to be a good conductor. Dielectrics are associated with lossless or low-loss materials, wheres/(?e)3.4 MeasurementThe insulator constant of material can be found by a variety of static electrical measurement. The complex permittivity is evaluated over a wide range of frequencies by using different variants of dielectric spectroscopy, covering 21 orders of magnitude from 10-6to 1015Hz. Also, by usingcryostatsand ovens, the dielectric properties of a medium can be characterized over an array of temperatures. In order to study systems for such diverse exciting fields, a number of measurement setups are used, each adequate for a special frequency range.Low-frequencytime domainmeasurements (10-6-103Hz)Low-frequencyfrequency domainmeasurements (10-5-106Hz)Reflective coaxial methods (106-1010Hz)Transmission coaxial method (108-1011Hz)Quasi-optical methods (109-1010Hz)Fourier-transform methods (1011-1015Hz)3.5 Magnet used for InductrackInductrack is a tout ensemble passive, fail-safe magnetic levitation system, using only unpowered loops of wires in the track and permanent magnets (arranged into Halbach Arrays) on the vehicle to achieve magnetic levitation. The track can be in one of two configurations, a ladder track and a laminated track. The ladder track is make of unpowered Litz-wire cables, and the laminated track is made out of stacked copper or aluminium sheets.Description Inductrack was invented by a team of scientists at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, headed by physicist Richard F. Post, for use in maglev trains. The only power required is to push the train forrad against air and electromagnetic tow, with increasing levitation force generated as the velocity of the train increases over the loops of wire. Its name comes from the wordinductanceorinductor an electrical device made from loops of wire. As the magnet array (with alternating magnetic field orientations) passes over the loops of wire, it induces a current in them. The current creates its own magnetic field which repels the permanent magnets.When atomic number 60-iron-barn permanent magnetsare used, levitation is achieved at low speeds, allowing it to lift 50 times the magnet weight. The test model levitated at speeds above 22 mph, but Richard Post believes that on real tracks, levitation could be achieved at as little as 1 to 2 mph. Below the transition speed, the magnetic drag increases as the vehicles speed increases and approaches the transition speed, but above this transition speed, the magnetic drag decreases as the vehicles speed increases. The Inductrack II variation uses two Halbach arrays, one above and one below the track to double the levitating magnetic field without substantially increasing the weight or footprint area of the Halbach arrays, while having lower drag forces at low speeds.Several maglev railroad proposals are found upon Inductrack technology. The U.S.National Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) is also considering Inductrack technology for launching rockets.Stationary cars For use at embarkation/ debarkation areas, an implementation using a base track would continue levitating the car while stationary. With a loop edifice similar to a flat escalator by stationary track there would be no moving parts friction. Also, the elimination of the need for wheels during starting/ stopping of the cars simplify car construction and maintenance. neodymium magnetA neodymium magnet or NIB magnet (also, but less specifically, called a rare earth magnet) is a powerful magnet made of a combination of a combination of neodymium, iron and boron -Nd2Fe14B.Neodymium magnet on a bracket from a hard driveThey have replaced marginally weaker and significantly more heat-resistant samarium-cobalt magnets in most applications, due mainly to their lower cost. These magnets are very strong in comparison to their mass, but are also mechanically fragile and the most powerful grades lose their magnetism at temperatures above 176 degrees fahrenheit or 80 degrees Celsius. High-temperature grades will operate at up to 200 and even 230 C but their strength is only marginally greater than that of samarium-cobalt. Neodymium magnets (or neo as they are known in the labor) are pass judgment in strength from N24 to the strongest N54. The number after the N represents the magnetic energy product, in mega gauss-oersted s (MGOe) (1 MGOe = 7,958 TA/m = 7,958 J/m). N48 has a remnant static magnetic field of 1.38 teslas and an H (magnetic field intensity) of 13,000 oersteds (1.0 MA/m). By volume one requires about 18 times as much ceramic magnet material for the equivalent magnet strength. The neodymium magnet industry is continually working to push the maximum energy product (strength) closer to the theoretical maximum of 64 MGOe. Scientists are also working hard to improve the maximum operating temperature for any given strength.A neodymium magnet lifting 1300 times its own massUsed for stabilization and angular head motors in computer hard drives, neodymium magnets are also popular with hobbyists, and a small magnet can have nasty properties it exhibits magnetic braking when moved near a non-magnetic metal due to induced eddy currents. An excellent demonstration for students to see the effects of Lenzs Law in non-ferrous metals may be performed by dropping a strong neodymium magnet through a copp er pipe. The magnet will travel through the pipe remarkably slowly as it falls, the effect may be greatly enhanced by immersing the pipe in tranquil nitrogen (thus increasing its conductivity even further) prior to dropping the magnet through. A somewhat larger magnet interacts strongly enough with the magnetic field of the Earth to allow its tendency to align with that field to be perceived directly when holding it, essentially forming a compass. Cylinder- and disc-shaped neodymium magnets are especially responsive to the Earths magnetic fields. Neodymium magnets are used for the transducers in many headphones.Chapter 4MAGLEV DESIGN4.1 Electromagnetic Suspension System (Concept)The design of the electromagnetic suspension system can be through with(p) with two types 1) By using a Hydraulic Damper or2) By using Linear Motor as a Damper.The judgment is to design the magnetic suspension system on the front shock absorber of the motor motorcycle to have a better performance with e ase of handling and comfort ride. There are two cylinders installed on two separate arms of the front shock absorbing rods. The cylinder contains the pair of the cylindrical magnets having same pole facing each other to create the required repulsive force to have required levitation effect. The two cylindrical magnets having S (South Pole) on the outer surface concentric with the inner circumference having N (North Pole) as shown in following figure-1) Working for the Hydraulic DamperThe two disc magnets in a tube or two ring magnets on a shaft, as seen in above figure comprise our required magnet for a motor bike front suspension system. With unlike poles facing, the magnets repel each other generate an air gap between them. The repulsive force restores displacement towards each other, and displacement away is restored by gravity. A hydraulic damper is dogged on the top of the cylinder and connected with the upper magnet with a shaft. The set of shocks used with magnets inside t hem that are used as the fork setup. One magnet is at the top of the inner portion of the shock with north polarity facing down towards the ground. The second magnet sits on the top of the inner shock that pivots up and down. This magnet has the north polarity upwards so it is parallel with the other magnet. The two magnets fight against each other giving the forks travel. There is also an adjustment at the top of the shock, which allows the magnets to become closer, together for a stiffer travel or further apart for softer travel.The force from gravity, the force from repelling magnet the radial instability is temperate by shaft. If the shaft is removed from the simple spring, it will be unstable naturally. The magnet will tend towards vertical motion, resulting in instabi

Population Genetics (Molecular Epidemiology) of Eukaryotes

universe Genetics (Molecular Epidemiology) of EukaryotesINTRODUCTIONThe study of the molecular epidemiology of parasitic infections and their vectors is meant to practice the standardized diversenesss of questions as those of bacterial or viral infections. As with bacteria, the molecular epidemiology of eukaryotic infections follows the distri just nowion and dynamics of microbial desoxyribonucleic acid. The key resistence, however, is precisely this biology, which defines a unequivocal approach to molecular epidemiologic investigation of infections ca do by eukaryotic organisms. In bacterial riposte, each someone passes down an similar copy of solely the DNA to the next generation. Some eukaryotic pathogens be contain reproductively in similar ways to bacteria and reproduce a inform eachy, while new(prenominal)s have sexual retort for at least part of their life- speech rhythm. The individual is able to gene pasture a clone of itself by binary fission to produce two ident ical organisms, and if successful, depart produce large numbers to the detriment of its host. Asexually reproducing organisms stand in addition exhibit promiscuous horizontal gene transfer, which bottom be a major source of variation and adaptation (19), solely this is non sex. Sex is the biologi phoney necessary programmed recombination (crossing e genuinelyplace) and random shuffling (reassortment) of chromosomal DNA in the process of facsimile. This results in an enormous reservoir of variation. Bacteria in nature argon heterogenous conglome judge or communities (13, 19), but when they cause disease, oddly in epidemics, it is generally a clone that is responsible and that we track (Chapter 2). sexual reproduction in ab step to the fore protozoa, many parasitic worms and more or less vectors, however, neer results in a clone with the exception of identical twins. in that location is contractable conservation, however, within a group of organisms that tends to breed unneurotic. In genetical science, this is the working exposition of a race. For sexually reproducing organisms, the race is the epidemiologic unit to track. Within the group, allelomorph frequencies and then traits atomic number 18 conserved under well-defined conditions. The unique situation of the genetics of states is that it reflects non only present individuals but overly the existences previous(prenominal) and the approaching potential for subsequent generations (5). Many parasites exhibit both sexual and asexual modes of reproduction, but these life stages be distributed in different hosts. handling of their molecular epidemiology is doubly complex, but net be simplified for some questions by considering their biology just in the human host. The whole knit stitch of tribe genetics is perhaps the most complex area of genetics, but it arises from transparent precepts. This chapter go forth outline the basic models used in population genetics and are right off applicable to problems of public health epidemiology. mention POINTSAsexual reproduction usually produces a clone sexual reproduction never does.A population is a group of organisms that tends to breed togetherallele and ge nonype frequencies describe populationsAllele frequencies and traits tend to be retained within groups of inter lift organisms (derived from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium)Allele and genotype frequencies can be used to infer population historiesIndices and statistics can be used to compare evaluate population history and to project population dynamicsDEFINING genetic constitution IN EUKARYOTIC ORGANISM Some statuss whitethorn not be familiar to some readers, so it is of import to define these early. unrivaled of the dividing lines amongst bacteria and sexually reproducing parasites and vectors of human disease is their physical building and organization. Sexually reproducing organisms exit pass some portion of their life cycle where their chromosome s ( encipher 5.1) exist as nearly identical pairs (diploid). Some organisms, malaria in particular, also have only one copy (haploid) during their asexual stage, and this is the stage that infects humans. A similar location on each of the chormosomes is a venue, and differences betwixt loci are alleles.The geometry of DNA also strongly differentiates bacteria from eukaryotes (Figure 5.2). Prokaryotes have a single1, eyeshade chromosome whereas withal the simplest eukaryotes, yeast, have at least 16 linear chromosomes. A specific marker on a bacterial chromosome will forever be transmitted at reproduction together with any new(prenominal) marker or trait. The uniform also occurs with an asexually reproducing eukaryote disrespect having multiple linear chromosomes. A marker on the genome of a sexually reproducing eukaryote, by contrast, will have a 50% chance of macrocosm transmitted away from any marker it is not very stiff to. The labeling of each allele present at the an alogous locus on each chromosome constitutes the genotype. A locus with the same polymorphism at the same site on each of the chromosome is homozygous, and with a different polymorphism is heterozygous.Figure 5.2OPTIONS FOR MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY OF EUKARYOTESStudy asexual parasitesUse a marker constraining to the trait of interest (if known)Use many markers throughout the genome or ecological successionStudy the whole group of organisms in which the trait is present (population)HARDY-WEINBERG labyrinthine sense THE POPULATION NULL HYPOTHESISPopulations have a mathematical rendering base on allele frequencies, which ultimately contributes to the development of tools for key footprints of specialization and diversity. Allele frequencies can differentiate populations, and genotypical frequencies can do so with even greater resolution. The blood among allelic frequency and genotypic frequency has a simple mathematical relationship which is the definition of a population. If we use the letters A and a to represent different alleles at a single diallelic locus and p and q to represent their respective frequencies, a population with p=0.8 and q=0.2 is undefendedly different from a population where p=0.2, q=0.8, especially where this kind of result is found at multiple loci. Allele frequencies are not constantly the most sensitive bank bill of differentiation. The same allele frequency may still be found in what are mop uply distinct populations if assessed for genotypic frequencies. Alleles combine to form genotypes, so the genotypic frequency is a function of the allelic frequencies. For a diallelic locus where we know the frequency of each allele, the sum of these frequencies is 1 or (p + q = 1). For sexually reproducing organisms the next generation arises from the combination of alleles from a pussycat of males with alleles from a pool of females. If we imagine that individuals from these pools will pair at random, the subsequent distribution of al leles in genotypes is equivalent to rolling a pair of dice. For independent, random events the probability of 2 events occurring simultaneously is the product of their frequencies (p + q)female (p + q)male = 1. The genotypic frequencies of the publication for such a population should be p2 + 2pq + q2, if all assumptions are met, where p2 and q2 are the frequencies for the homozygotes and 2pq the heterozygotes. This is the well-known Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE). This simple quadratic equation is the basis for all population genetics even when it is not timed directly. It represents the expected genotypic frequencies from a inclined practise of allelic frequencies. It is one of the most stable mathematical relationships in nature. It is so much the expectation that when not observed in sequencing projects, it can rede sequencing errors. It is the null hypothesis and mathematical definition of a stable population. The relationship HWE describes is true under a set of 5-10 as sumptions that represent the most eventful factors that influence population genetic structure. The 5 most common assumptions are that thither is1) Random mating (panmixia, assortative mating)2) No option3) No migration4) An numberless population5) No mutationIt is rare to have any of these assumptions met in nature, but the proportions are so resilient that the assumptions have to be poorly violated to disturb this relationship, and even so, the proportions will be reestablished within 1-2 generations once the population is stabilized. As with most models, the underlying assumptions are the most heavy aspects. They are the basis for most conversations in population genetics.MARKERSMicrosatellites, single base of operations polymorphisms (SNPs) and sequencing are currently the genetic elements most employed in population genetics. Microsatellites are short tandem repeats of 2-8 nucleotides (reviewed in Ellegren, 2004 128). Microsatellites have fallen out of favor in studies o f statistical genetics or gene finding, since SNPs and sequencing go forth better resolution at the level of individuals. Microsatellites, however, remain important in population genetics since they are mostly neutral for selection and have uplifted allelic richness and information content. Their rapid mutation rate (10-2 10-5 per generation) and step-wise mode of mutation can limit their application to questions that extend over short time scales and to certain statistical approaches. SNPs have lower rates of mutation (10-8) in eukaryotes, often are diallelic, are ten propagation more abundant (10, 22) and have high processivity and scorability. Sequencing essentially entrusts a very dense panel of SNPs and identifies rare variants as well as morphological polymorphisms. Mitochondrial and ribosomal DNA markers are much less abundant, less polymorphic and thus less informative than microsatellites or SNPs. Some are under selection and in the case of mitochondrial DNA, the gen ome is haploid (only 1 copy of chromosomal DNA) and may or may not have sex-specific inheritance depending on the species. They are useful for phylogeny studies, may be more economical to use in laboratories with limited capabilities and are sometimes combined with other markers.MEASURES OF differentiation AND DIVERSITYAreas most often regaleed using population genetics are evolution and conservation. These two areas deal with essentially the same phenomenon, but at different time scales, thus the questions, the approaches and the interpretation will differ depending on the nature of the problem. The relevant public health questions in population genetics focus on identity and dynamics of the group earlier than individuals over short time scales and directed at the control or extinction of a parasite or vector. Whos sleeping with whom, modes of reproduction, evolution or the last common ancestor are all important in different contexts. They may be useful to help explain anomalies and can influence interpretation, but they are rarely answers to issues of control or intervention. discretion how diverse a population is or the degree of difference between populations combined with good study design will contribute directly to determining the impact of control measures, host or parasite demographics, resistance, fortune and resilience or fragility of the population.The field of population genetics depends heavy on mathematical analyses, some simple and some very sophisticated, to answer these questions. Mathematical treatments of all of the indices and statistics of differentiation and diversity can be intimately obtained from textbooks or publications and will not be included here. Fortunately for the mathematically challenged, many open source, individual computer programs are available as well as modules in R. The risk that goes with all readymade programs is a bereavement to understand what is being asked or the assumptions and limitations of the approa ch being taken. A disposition of some frequently used programs is provided at the end of this chapter (Table 5.1).POPULATIN DIFFERENTIATIONFST, GST, GST In addition to the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, populations can be further differentiated by other statistical tests. This is a family of statistics developed as the fixation index (FST) in the 1950s by Sewell Wright and Gustave Malcot to describe the alike(p)lihood of homozygosity (fixation in the words of the time) at a single diallelic locus based on heterozygosity of a subpopulation compared to the nitty-gritty population. Theoretically, values should mould from 1 (no similarity-every individual is genotypically different) to 0 (identity-every individual is genotypically same). Nei (16) extended the FST to handle the case of more than two alleles and developed the GSTLR1. Although the term FST is often used in the literature, formally most studies today will employ the GST. When highly polymorphic loci, such as microsatellites , are genotyped, the GST sternly underestimates differentiation and will not cathode-ray oscilloscope from 0 1. Hedrick (11) set the range of values for the GST by dividing it by its maximum possible value given the markers used. This is the GST. The GST makes possible the full range of differentiation. FST and GST relate to inherent properties of populations and contain evolutionary information lost by the GST transformation. FST-like measures have been and continue to be astray used to describe population structure, and their characteristics and behavior are well-known. There are additional related statistics (e. g. ST (4), AMOVA, RST (20), (25)), that address other aspects of differing genetic models, unequal savor sizes, ac figuringing for haploid genomes, mechanism of mutation and selection.D. LR2This is sometimes referred to as Josts D, since in that respect are numerous other Ds related to genetics and statistics. There can be logical inconsistencies for estimating di fferentiation based directly on heterozygosity. Ratios of pooled subpopulation to total population diversities tend toward zero when the subpopulation diversity is high (12). Josts D is based on the effective allele number (see below). Unlike those based directly on heterozygosity, it has the property of yielding a linear reception to changes in allele frequencies and is independent of subpopulation diversity. Unlike FST, GST and similar indices, Josts D does not carry information relevant to the evolutionary processes responsible for the present typography of a subpopulation. It is described by supporters and detractors as purely a measure of differentiation (26). It was never meant to do more.Whitlock provides one of the best comparisons of these 2 approachesThis (Josts) D differs from FST in a fundamental definitional way FST measures deviations from panmixia2, while D measures deviations from total differentiation. As a result, their denominators differ, and thus, the two indi ces can behave quite differently. D indicates the proportion of allelic diversity that lies among populations, while FST is proportional to the variance of allele frequency among populations. D is more related to the genetic distance between populations than to the variance in allele frequencies it may be preferable to call D a genetic distance measure (26).There has been contest about the use of these different types of indices. There should not be. They clearly address different questions and resolve different analytic problems. It should be recognized that the GST and Josts D yield fairly similar results when the number of populations is small and the markers have a small number of alleles. The GST and Josts D have given similar results in our own studies using microsatellites (2) and in simulation (26) with GST values slightly higher than those of Josts D. Some authors recommend calculating both GST and Josts D, in part to fulfil everyone and in part to obtain the useful infor mation about population diversity their departure may provide.In relation to public health, most questions about parasites and vectors deal with near term events of DIVERSITYDiversity like differentiation has myriad formulations and interpretations. The simplest expression is mean heterozygosity (H). For microsatellite data this is usually high due to the intrinsically high mutation rate of these markers, and markers with higher division are usually selected. Allelic richness (Ar) is simply a count of the number of alleles at each locus. Differences in prove size will necessarily result in differences in allele number. This is usually adjusted for by statistical methods such as rarefaction (15) to standardize sample sizes between comparison groups. The effective allele number (Ae) is also a measure of diversity, but is already adjusted for sample size. It represents the number of alleles with equal frequencies that will produce the same heterozygosity as that of the target populat ion.The most informative measure of diversity is the effective population size (Ne), a concept also introduced by Sewell Wright. It is designed to address the essential reason that diversity is important, namely, it reflects the potentiality of genetic bollocks. Genetic drift is the effect of random transmission of alleles during reproduction to succeeding generations. When numbers of reproducing individuals are small, the genetic penning of the population of offspring can differ by chance from what is expected given the composition of the parents. If two coins are flipped, it would not be that unusual for both to distinguish up heads. If a thousand coins are flipped, the ratio of heads to tails will always be very near the expected 5050 ratio. Genetic drift is stronger when populations are small or reduced, and weakens the strength of adaptational selection.Like differentiation, there are several formulations for Ne that can provide different values and are designed to measure different aspects of the population. The cause Ne is the probability of identity by descent for two alleles chosen at random. It is a retrospective assessment of population diversity. The variance Ne assesses the variance of the offsprings allele frequency, and is thus forward looking. It measures recent population changes that extend to its genetic composition. Ne can represent the number of actively breeding individuals in the population or the number of individuals in an ideal population needed to reconstitute the diversity in an actual population. It is almost always less than the census population (Nc). It is a key value in conservation genetics and population genetics in general, since it reflects the history and future potential of a population. Increasing drift (decreasing Ne) tends to neutralize the force of directional selection, permits retention of deleterious mutations and hampers the ability of populations to adapt to stresses (9).Despite its importance, Ne can be difficult to estimate in wild populations due to uncertainties of the demographic, genetic and biological context (17, 24). It can be affected by sample size, overlapping generations, sampling interval, sex ratios, gene flow, age-structure, variation in family size, fluctuate population size or selection. Increasing the numbers of markers is less important than large samples for accurate estimates as much as 10% of the Ne has been recommended Palstra, 2008 84. Its interpretation can also be uncertain. Estimated Ne has been used as an aid in predicting extinction using the concept of a tokenish viable population size. Some have suggested that at an Ne of 50-500 a population will experience extinction in the short- or long-term (7). Others have argued that this might occur at Ne = 5000 (14). While it is clear that lack of diversity has an impact on extinction (21), it is also clear that there cannot be a universally accepted number for the borderline viable population size (6, 23) . In any case, theory suggests that there is a number defined by the amount of genetic drift below which populations are likely to go extinct on their own. The range for this number is context-specific and will require multiple species-specific studies under multiple conditions. This kind of analysis might contribute to developing a stopping recipe as control measures approach elimination. 1 Leptospira spp. are an exception with 2 broadside chromosomes.2 The condition where all individuals have an equal opportunity to reproduce with all other individualsLR1G?LR2Does it stand for something?

Quantitation by Extraction

Quantitation by ExtractionSyed Masood Hassan Akbari unveilingA liquid-liquid extraction strain consists of a component (a) which is to be remove from the gift phase. The addition of a second phase (b) a response phase which is immiscible with the feed phase but the component (a) is alcohol-soluble in both the feed phase and the solvent phase. As it happens the solute (a) is transferred from the feed phase to the solvent phase. After extraction the feed and solvent phases atomic number 18 called the raffinate and the extract phases respectively.Usually one of the twain phases is an ingrained phase composition the other is an aqueous phase. Under equilibrium conditions the distribution of the solute (a) over the cardinal phases is determined by the distribution law. After the extraction the two phases sewer be discriminate because of their immiscibility. Component (a) is because separated from the extract phase by distillation and the solvent is then regenerated. Further e xtractions may be carried out to remove more of the component (a).Once the product of recreate has been extracted finally an absorbance reading can be found at its alike max. prefigure 1 Shows the chemical substance structure of trimethoprim.Figure 2 Shows the chemical structure of sulfamethoxazole.This experiment consisted of three main componentsThe quantification of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole in a suspension of Septrin.Interpreting the data ga in that locationd and utilize it in collusive the content of trimethoprim in Septrin.Interpreting the data gathered and using it in calculating the content of sulfamethoxazole in Septrin.EXPERIMENTALExtraction of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole from SEPTRIN.Figure 3 Illustrates a schematic of the entire extraction mapping consisting of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole in SEPTRIN oral solution.sulfamethoxazole (Standard, Sample and Blank prep)Figure 4 Illustrates sulfamethoxazoles sample preparation.The standard was prepared i n the engage manner in a 250ml volumetric flaskful with using 0.2g of sulfamethoxazole in 50ml 0.1M NaOH and topping up with water. The functioning to follow was the exact similar as the sample prep.The blank was prepared in the same manner and water was utilize along with the re ingredients outlined above in sample prep.Trimethoprim (Sample and Blank prep)The already extracted bottom floor with chloroform was extracted once more using four 50ml quantities of 1M acetic acid and the top layers were combined and serve with 5ml chloroform and the top layer added to a 250ml volumetric flask and modify with 1M acetic acid to the mark. 10ml of this solution was then added to a nonher 100ml volumetric flask and 10ml of 1M acetic acid was also added and topped up with water.The blank was make by using 0.2M acetic acid solution.RESULTSDetermining the quantity of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole in an oral suspension of SEPTRIN.Table 1 Shows the absorbance values obtained at each re spective max for trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole.CalculationsTrimethoprimThe sample had a dilution factor of 1 atomic number 19 which meant that there were two dilutions carried out where the suspension was diluted to 250ml, which is a 1100 dilution. Secondly the sample was diluted too 100ml, which is a 110 dilution. These two dilutions steps combined gave a 11000 dilution factor. The calculations were carried out as below.2.5ml in 250ml1100 (Dilution ratio)110 (10ml in 100ml)Therefore 11000 dilution factor.Absorbance 0.332 x 1000 = 332A1%/1cm=204 so 1% solution has 204 absorbance1%conc = 204X = 332332(1)/204 = xX= 1.627% w/v It complies with the complaisance demarcation line of (1.44-1.76)% w/v.Sulfamethoxazole0.2g in 250ml200mg in 250ml (1100 dilution ratio)0.8mg in 1ml (150 dilution)0.016mg in 1ml (110 dilution)0.0016mg in 1mlSample of sulfamethoxazole absorbance = 0.075So, 0.0016mg in 1ml = 0.293And, x = 0.0250.0250.0016/0.293 = xX = 0.0001365mg in 1ml0.0001365mg in 1 ml x 5 0000 = 6.826mg in 1ml6.826mg in 1ml 0.06826g in 1ml 6.826g in 100mlX = 6.826% w/v It does not comply with the compliance limit of (7.4-8.6)% w/v.Trimethoprim and SulfamethoxazoleThe concentration of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole in 5ml of SEPTRIN were calculate as shown below.Trimethoprim 1.627% 1.627g in 100mlSo, x in 5ml100x = 8.135gX = 0.08135g in 5ml SEPTRINSulfamethoxazole 6.826% 6.826g in 100mlSo, x in 5ml100x = 34.13gX = 0.3413g in 5ml SEPTRINCONCLUSIONThe lively ingredients in SEPTRIN, trimethoprim 1.627% w/v and sulfamethoxazole 6.826% w/v were segregated by extraction. The concentrations of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole in the 2.5ml suspension were calculated to be as stated above respectively. The content of trimethoprim fell within the compliance limit but for the sulfamethoxazole the content fell a bit niggling of the compliance limit suggesting apparatus malfunction or human illusion in making up sample. Trimethoprim complies with the limit set out on t he BP but for sulfamethoxazole it falls under the limit stated on the BP.QUESTIONSIllustrate the extraction procedure.Support the separating move in a mobilize clamp on a ring stand. Make sure the stopcock of the displace is closed.Place a stemmed funnel in the get along of the separating funnel. Add the liquid to be extracted, then add the extraction solvent. The substance volume in the separating funnel should not be greater than 75% of the funnel volume.Insert a stopper in the neck of the separating funnel. choose up the separating funnel with the stopper in place and the stopcock closed, and make it once gently.Point the stem away from your face and slowly outdoors the stopcock to release some build-up of excess pressure, reclose the stopcock and reduplicate this procedure until only a small amount of pressure is released with it is vented.Shake the funnel vigorously for a minute, release the pressure and then again repeat the step of shaking a few times till there is l ess pressure and the solutes are at equilibrium between the two solvents.Place the funnel back into the ring and let it rest collected until the layers are clearly segregated. While waiting, remove the stopper and place a beaker under the separating funnel.Carefully open the stopcock and allow the lower layer to drain into the beaker. Drain just to the point that the upper liquid however reaches the stopcock.The top layer can be left in the separating funnel if further extractions need to be carried out which do need to be carried out. When finished with the separating funnel store the stopper away from the funnel.Explain why sulfamethoxazole is soluble in the alkaline aqueous solution and trimethoprim is not?It is already known that trimethoprim is classified as a benzylpyrimidine and it protentiates the antimicrobial legal action of sulphonamides eg., sulfamethoxazole. So trimethoprim has a tendency to form insoluble complexes when combined with sulfamethoxazole in alkaline aqu eous media.Write out the chemical reply which leads to the coloured product.The reaction mechanism above shows the coloured dyeing agent N-(naphthalene-1-yl)ethane-1,2-diamine reacting with the diazonium to form the coloured product.Why is ammonium sulphanate added? What would happen if it was forgotten?AMS is used as a reagent to speed up the chemical reaction if it is not included in the reaction before adding the dying agent then the process will either delay in reaching to its finish or not reach it at all.After extraction of sulfamethoxazole, how is the extreme solvent processed?The organic solvent was extracted in four 50ml quantities of 1 M acetic acid. The upper layers were all combined and kept and wash with 5ml of chloroform. The top layer was then dispensed into a 250ml volumetric flask and topped up with 1 M acetic acid. 10ml of this solution was transferred to a 100ml volumetric flask, 10ml of 1 M acetic acid was also added and the flask was topped up with water. A blank was made and the sample from the organic layer was read at 271nm.